Biodiversity Assessment - Victorian Midlands
Victorian Midlands
Introduction
The bioregion predominantly comprises dissected uplands and isolated ranges of the Great Dividing Range, and low hills and low lying corridors of valleys and plains of Lower Palaeozoic and Tertiary deposits. The Dundas Tablelands province is a dissected tableland of Tertiary deposits overlaying a Palaeozoic palaeoplain while the Grampians Ranges consist of striking parallel ranges of resistant sandstone.
A variety of relatively poor soils dominate the bioregion with a mixture of texture contrast soils (Chromosols, Kurosols and Sodosols), shallow sandy soils (Rudosols), cracking clays (Vertosols) and minor occurrences of friable earths (Dermosols and Ferosols).
The native vegetation includes most of the Box-Ironbark Forest in Victoria, as well as substantial areas of Heathy Dry Forests and Eucalyptus woodlands and a complex mosaic of Grassy Woodland ecosystems in the valleys and plains.
Much of the Victorian Midlands has been cleared for gold mining, forestry and on the lower lying areas and valleys for agriculture, principally sheep and beef cattle grazing. Clearing has been most complete in the Dundas tablelands. In the less fertile parts and the most rugged parts of the Victorian Midlands, substantial areas of native vegetation remain today in good condition, for example in the Grampians National Park.
The bioregion contains four subregions (Goldfields (VM1) Central Victorian Uplands (VM2), Greater Grampians (VM3) and Dundas Tablelands (VM4).
Summary of overall condition and trend
Much of the bioregion is degraded as the result of fragmentation of remnant vegetation, and continues to decline. This is particularly pronounced in the Dundas Tablelands, which have only relictual vegetation. Where forest does remain, most has been severely impacted upon by extensive past logging for timber and fuel, particularly in the goldfields, which has resulted in an effective absence of old- growth forest from the Box-Ironbark Forest Complexes. In contrast to the rest of the bioregion the Greater Grampians retains much of its native vegetation and is generally in good condition. Threats which continue to impact on the bioregion include the ongoing results of fragmentation for remnant vegetation, grazing pressures, weed invasion, timber harvesting, altered fire regimes, loss of hollow bearing trees, and the impacts of feral animals including goats, rabbits, foxes and cats.
Continental landscape stress classes range from 1 and 2 for the majority of the area to 5 for the Greater Grampians province as assessed by the Landscape Health report (1 is most stressed, 6 is least stressed). The main contributors to the stress assessment of the Dundas Tablelands, Victorian Goldfields and Central Victorian Uplands are the extensive clearing and associated fragmentation of the vegetation and grazing pressures.
Summary of conservation priorities
Priorities for the bioregion include the protection and enhancement of the existing fragmented remnant vegetation. Much will be achieved through more focussed work on the restoration of the major remnants on public land and coupling this work with enhancement of the quality and extent of the linkages between these blocks. Improvement in the management of riparian corridors will play a particularly important role in this respect. In the valleys and plains areas where clearing has been most extensive the emphasis will be on working with landowners and managers to identify and protect important remnants rand the threatened species, communities and critical habitats of these landscapes through a range of incentive and support schemes. In the Grampians improved ecological fire management is likely to be the single most important priority.
Natural values
The Victorian Midlands bioregion contains most of Victoria's Ironbark forests. The Greater Grampians province is extremely diverse with 1/3 of Victoria's flora. Many of the spectacular geological features are reserved in areas such as the Grampians National Park, Melville Caves and Brisbane Ranges National Park.
Bioregional endemics include a range of herbaceous plants: Grampians Bauera (Bauera sessiliflora F. Muell.), Grampians Globe-pea (Sphaerolobium acanthos Crisp), Grampians Pincushion-lily (Borya mirabilis Churchill), Grampians Sheoak (Allocasuarina grampiana L.A.S. Johnson), Grampians Snow-gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora ssp. parvifructa K. Rule), Grampians Stringybark (Eucalyptus serraensis P. Ladiges & Whiffin), Grampians Trigger-plant (Stylidium soboliferum F. Muell.), Grampians Zieria (Zieria sp. 1 sensu Duretto (1999)), Maidens Bush-pea (Pultenaea maidenii Reader), Narrow-leaf Trymalium (Trymalium daltonii F. Muell.), Narrow-leaf Wax-flower (Philotheca angustifolia ssp. montana (Paul G. Wilson)), Ribbed Bush-pea (Pultenaea costata H.B. Will.), Rosy Bush-pea (Pultenaea subalpina (F. Muell.) Druce), Victoria Range Bush-pea (Pultenaea victoriensis Corrick), Victoria Range Stringybark (Eucalyptus victoriana P. Ladiges & Whiffin), Victorian Christmas-bush (Prostanthera lasianthos var. subcoriacea F. Muell. ex Benth.), Victorian Flat-pea (Platylobium alternifolium F. Muell.), Whipstick Crowea (Crowea exalata ssp. revoluta Paul G. Wilson), Williamson's Bush-pea (Pultenaea williamsoniana J.H. Willis), Bald-tip Beard-orchid (Calochilus richiae Nicholls), Bendigo Spider-orchid (Caladenia sp aff fragrantissima), Candy Spider-orchid (Caladenia versicolor), Grampians Duck-orchid (Caleana aff nigrita), Grampians Rustyhood (Pterostylis planulata s.s. D.L. Jones & M.A. Clem.), Lowly Greenhood (Pterostylis despectans (Nicholls) M.A. Clem. & D.L. Jones), McIvor Spider-orchid (Caladenia audasii), Red-cross Spider-orchid (Caladenia cruciformis), Robust Greenhood (Pterostylis valida), Stuart Mill Spider-orchid (Caladenia sp aff venusta), and Tawny Spider-orchid (Caladenia fulva).
Click here to link to a table of natural values within each subregion
Wetlands
Six wetlands of national importance are listed and one hundred and twenty-six wetlands of regional significance including shallow marshes, deep marshes and open water. They act as significant refuges supporting populations of endemic, rare or threatened species, and species-rich ecosystems. Their condition is poor (improvement requires significant management intervention) while the trend is declining. Threatening processes include pollution (run off of fertilisers and herbicides from adjacent agricultural land), grazing pressure, environmental weeds, and changes to hydrology.
Nationally important wetlands
Table: Australia's Important Wetlands (Directory of Important Wetlands of Australia): their type, condition, trend and threatening processes within each subregion.
There is no data available for this table within the bioregion.
Regionally important wetlands
Click here to link to a table of provisional identification of wetlands of regional significance: their type and special values within each subregion. The reliability of the overall subregional assessment is indicated.
Click here to link to a table of provisional identification of wetlands of regional significance: their condition, trend and threatening processes within each subregion.
Riparian Zones
Main river systems include the north flowing rivers such as the Wimmera, Avoca, Loddon and Campaspe, the south-flowing rivers such as the Werribee, Moorabool and Hopkins Rivers. The riparian zones are degraded (Recovery unlikely in medium term), and declining under changed hydrology changed fire regimes, trampling and grazing pressure from cattle and feral herbivores, environmental weeds, increasing fragmentation and loss of remnants, salinity, and firewood collection.
Map: Riparian threatening processes.
Click here to link to a table of riparian zones: their average condition, trend and threatening processes for each subregion. The reliability of this overall assessment is indicated.
Ecosystems at risk
In the Victorian Midlands there are 87 endangered and 42 vulnerable ecosystems at risk and declining with 13 ecosystems now extinct. Of the 186 regional ecosystems (ecological vegetation classes) in the bioregion - 47% are endangered, 23% are vulnerable and 7% are presumed extinct.
The major vegetation types that have the most regional ecosystems under threat (the NVIS major vegetation subgroups which have the largest number of threatened Ecological Vegetation Classes) are eucalyptus woodlands with a grassy understorey, eucalyptus woodlands with a shrubby understorey, and herbland, sedgeland and rushland.
The main threatening processes impacting on threatened ecosystems are: increasing fragmentation and loss of remnants through clearing for agricultural land, the introduction of exotic weeks, grazing pressure, introduction of feral animals, changing of fire regimes, firewood collection and changed hydrology and salinity.
Map: IBRA map showing frequency of threatening processes for ecosystems.
Click here to link to a table of provisional list of threatened ecosystems in Australia: their broad vegetation type (National Vegetation Information System - Major Vegetation Subgroup), recommended status, current legislative protection as a threatened ecosystem, trend and bioregional distribution. These ecosystems are arranged in the bioregion of their principal occurrence. The reliability of the recommended status is indicated.
Click here to link to a table of provisional list of threatened ecosystems in each subregion: their threatening processes.
Click here to link to a table of provisional list of threatened ecosystems in each subregion: their recommended recovery actions
Species at risk
Two hundred and forty-six taxa listed as threatened have been identified in the bioregion. Thirteen taxa are listed as extinct, 15 as critically endangered, 91 as endangered, 130 as vulnerable. Two hundred and eighty-five other taxa of conservation concern have been identified.
In the Victorian Midlands, trends of the taxa in the bioregion are 4% extinct, 1% rapidly declining, 5% declining, 3% improving and the trend for the remaining 86% is unknown.
Threatening processes which impact on these species include: grazing pressure from domestic stock; elevated macropod populations and rabbits; environmental weeds including Toowoomba Canary Grass Phalaris aquatica, Sharp (Spiny) Rush Juncus acutus, Gorse Ulex europeaus and Wild Oat Avena futa; changed fire regimes; increasing fragmentation and loss of remnants; feral animals including rabbits, foxes, cats, and goats, changed hydrology (salinity and other); and pollution.
Table: Number of threatened taxa, and others of conservation concern occurring in the bioregion
| Commonwealth | Victoria | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Extinct | Endangered | Vulnerable | Extinct | Critically Endangered | Endangered | Vulnerable | Data deficient or Insufficiently known | Lower risk - Near Threatened | Rare | |
| Amphibians | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||
| Birds | 3 | 3 | 6 | 22 | 20 | 5 | 4 | |||
| Fish | 2 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 2 | |||
| Invertebrates | 2 | 5 | 4 | 3 | ||||||
| Mammals | 1 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 6 | |
| Plant | 1 | 28 | 38 | 8 | 57 | 94 | 67 | 191 | ||
| Reptiles | 2 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 5 | |||
| Total | 2 | 40 | 54 | 13 | 15 | 91 | 130 | 84 | 17 | 194 |
Map: IBRA map showing frequency of threatening processes for species.
Click here to link to a table of species at risk in each subregion: their status, trend and subregional distribution. The reliability of the assessment of trend is indicated and whether recovery plans have been prepared.
Click here to link to a table of species at risk in each subregion: their threatening processes.
Click here to link to a table of species at risk in each subregion: their status recommended recovery actions.
Eucalypts and Acacias
Grampians Snow-gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora ssp. parvifructa K. Rule), Grampians Stringybark (Eucalyptus serraensis P. Ladiges & Whiffin) and Victoria Range Stringybark (Eucalyptus victoriana P. Ladiges & Whiffin) are endemic to the Bioregion. All are listed as rare in Victoria but are reserved within the Grampians National Park and considered to be secure.
Birds
Much of the remaining habitat in the Victorian Midlands has been fragmented by clearance; so ongoing declines in abundance might be expected. One reason that the Swift Parrot is Endangered is the level of habitat loss in this bioregion, one of its major non-breeding habitat areas. The Helmeted Honeyeater, which occurs only in the Victorian Midlands, is Critically Endangered for the same reason. Introduced birds make up a moderate proportion of the records made, and did not appear to increase greatly between Atlas periods. As in many southeastern bioregions, reporting rates of grassland birds were decreased, as did ground nesters and ground-feeding insectivores.
Status: Moderately diverse mix of woodland and forest birds.
Rare and threatened: Swift Parrot in box-ironbark in winter, Helmeted Honeyeater near Healesville.
Increasers: Spotted Turtle-Dove, Crested Pigeon, Musk Lorikeet.
Indicators: Australasian Bittern, Banded Lapwing, Gang-Gang Cockatoo, Red-browed Treecreeper, Tawny-crowned Honeyeater, Scarlet Robin, Flame Robin, Jacky Winter, Spotted Quail-thrush, Varied Sittella, Crested Shrike-tit, Restless Flycatcher, Diamond Firetail .
Trend: Ground-nesting and grassland birds and ground-feeding insectivores with lower reporting rates.
Scenario: Continued loss of species from fragments.
Actions: Maximise or increase the size of and integrity of woodland fragments. Provide connectivity between seasonally variable resources. Protect or rehabilitate catchments of major wetlands retaining values for freshwater birds. See also Action Plan for Australian Birds 2000 Coordinated Conservation Plan: Temperate Woodlands.
Click hereto download a summary report including the physical characteristics of the bioregion, a species list, and summary statistics [Excel file]. The file may open on your screen. To save it to your system 'Save as' under the File menu.
Mammals
Number of species and status
There are 55 mammal species within this bioregion. (The maximum number of species recorded in a bioregion is 86 and the minimum is 25).
Click here to link to a table of number of species in each status class for this bioregion.
Click here to link to a list of mammal species and their status for this bioregion.
Critical weight range
The critical weight range (35 - 5500 g) of mammals is the size range of Australian mammals that have been most affected by environmental changes following European settlement. In this bioregion, the proportion of mammal fauna within the critical weight range is .509. (The maximum proportion of fauna within the critical weight range recorded in a bioregion is 0.632 and the minimum is 0.222).
Faunal Attrition Index
Faunal attrition is a measure of contraction or loss of species richness with a region. A high index value means many species have declined or are extinct in the bioregion. The index can be used to compare the status of mammal fauna to regional attributes such as changes since European settlement and average annual rainfall. The Faunal Attrition Index for mammals in this bioregion is .25. (The maximum faunal attrition index value recorded in a bioregion is 0.66 and the minimum is 0).
Click here to link to a table of Faunal Attrition Index for groups of mammals shows the contributions of each group to overall patterns of faunal decline.
Faunal Contraction Index
A range contraction index is a measure of the extent to which the range inhabited by a particular species has contracted. A high index value means that many of the species comprising the region's original mammal fauna have contracted from a high proportion of the regions they originally occurred in. The faunal contraction index for the mammal fauna in this bioregion is .21. (The maximum faunal contraction index value recorded in a bioregion is 0.51 and the minimum is 0.07).
Faunal Endemism Index
Endemic species are those restricted to certain regions. Regions containing endemic species are considered to have high biodiversity conservation values because opportunities to conserve those species do not exist elsewhere. A high index value means that the species comprising the original mammal fauna typically occurred in few bioregions. The faunal endemism index value for the mammal fauna in this bioregion is .67. (The maximum faunal endemism index value recorded in a bioregion is 0.79 and the minimum is 0.52).
New Endemism Index
Extant (still surviving) species that have undergone major range contractions can be considered 'new endemics'. Bioregions that contain new endemic species are often important refugia for threatened species. The new endemism index for the mammal fauna in this bioregion is .65. (The maximum new endemism index value recorded in a bioregion is 0.93 and the minimum is 0.5).
Click here to link to a list translocated species that has/have been successfully translocated into this bioregion.
Exotic Mammals
The number of introduced exotic mammal species that occur within this bioregion is 13. (The maximum number of introduced exotic mammal species in a bioregion is 16 and the minimum is 5).
Click here to link to a list of introduced exotic mammal species for this bioregion.
Extinct mammal species
The number of extinct mammal species that previously occurred within this bioregion is 7. (The maximum number of extinct mammal species in a bioregion is 29 and the minimum is 0).
Click here to link to a list of extinct mammal species for this bioregion.
Management responses
Reserve consolidation
The total area in parks and conservation reserves represents 7.8% of the bioregion. At least sixty-two percent of regional ecosystems are included in parks and reserves.
Major reserves include: the Grampians National Park and Black Range State Park which are known as significant refugia for flora and fauna, and contain important geological features and Aboriginal cultural sites; Brisbane Ranges National Park, Dergholm State Park Enfield State Park, Kooyoora State Park, Langi Ghiran State Park, Lerderderg State Park, Mount Buangor State Park, which have diverse and rich flora and fauna and significant geological features; Kamarooka State Park which is recognised for its Grey Box open forest community; Deep Lead Flora and Fauna Reserve, Kara Kara State Park, Paddys Ranges State Park and Whipstick State Park which are recognised for their Ironbark forests; and Kinglake National Park and Lake Eildon National Park which have a high diversity of flora and fauna.
Priority for increased protection has been assessed (based on Fitzsimons (1999)) at the level of Broad Vegetation Types within IBRA Version 4 bioregional boundaries. The following have been listed as a high priority: Grassland Complexes, Plains Grassy Woodland Complexes, Riverine Grassy Woodland Complexes, Box Ironbark Forest Complexes, Herb-rich Woodland Complexes, and Valley Grassy Forest Complexes. The Victorian Government has recently committed to the establishment of a series of new parks and reserves in the ECC Box-Ironbark study area, which will significantly increase reservation levels across a large part of the bioregion. The West Victoria Regional Forest Agreement addresses protection of some priority ecosystems such as Plains Grassy Woodland in the Dundas Tablelands subregion. Land acquisition under the National Reserve System Program has increased reservation of Plains Grassy Woodland around the Grampians. Opportunities for increasing reservation are limited by the extreme depletion of some ecosystems and private land ownership.
Click here to link to a table of comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness (CAR) of the National Reserve System in terms of ecosystems and area sampled and a ranking of reserve management. The bioregional priority for consolidating the National Reserve System is based on this CAR analysis and threat.
Table: Bioregional and subregional priorities and ecosystem priorities to consolidate the National Reserve System and associated ecosystem constraints.
There is no data available for this table within the bioregion.
Off-park conservation for species and ecosystem recovery
Much of the remnant vegetation on public land remains outside the reserve system. The more fertile parts of the landscape are largely cleared and in private ownership. There is a need for improved management of non-reserved public land remnants for biodiversity outcomes and increased partnerships with private land managers to protect and enhance remnants of the highly depleted vegetation classes typical of the more fertile parts of the landscape, and riparian corridors.
The following taxa have been identified as the highest priority for off-reserve planning and management activity in a subregional assessment of threatened species conservation activity (Lowe et al. 2000). The priority threatened species include Barking Owl (Ninox connivens), Bullant (Myrmecia sp. 17), Diamond Dove (Geopelia cuneata), Painted Honeyeater (Grantiella picta), Pink-tailed Worm-Lizard (Aprasia parapulchella), Speckled Warbler (Chthonicola sagittata), Square-tailed Kite (Lophoictinia isura), Squirrel Glider (Petaurus norfolcensis), Swift Parrot (Lathamus discolor), Woodland Blind Snake (Ramphotyphlops proximus), for fauna, and for vascular plants, Adamson's Blown-grass (Agrostis adamsonii), Ausfeld's Wattle (Acacia ausfeldii), Bald-tip Beard-orchid (Calochilus richiae), Basalt Pepper-cress (Lepidium hyssopifolium), Black Gum (Eucalyptus aggregata), Candy Spider-orchid (Caladenia versicolor), Clustered Daisy-bush (Olearia suffruticosa), Concave Pomaderris (Pomaderris subplicata), Crimson Spider-orchid (Caladenia concolor), Enfield Grevillea (Grevillea bedggoodiana), Fryerstown Grevillea (Grevillea obtecta), Golden Cowslips (Diuris behrii), Grampians Duck-orchid (Caleana sp. aff. nigrita (Horsham)), Lanky Buttons (Leptorhynchos elongatus), Large Rustyhood (Pterostylis maxima), Long-tail Greenhood (Pterostylis woollsii), Lowly Greenhood (Pterostylis despectans), Mount Cole Grevillea (Grevillea montis-cole ssp. montis-cole), Plump Swamp Wallaby-grass (Amphibromus pithogastrus), Red-beard Midge-orchid (Genoplesium sp. aff. morrisii (Pyrete ), Sikh's Whiskers (Pterostylis boormanii), Small-leaf Wax-flower (Eriostemon difformis ssp. difformis), Williamson's Wattle (Acacia williamsonii), and Winged Water-starwort (Callitriche umbonata). The Victorian Temperate Woodland Bird Community, which is listed under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act is a priority species group for management.
Fencing to exclude or manage grazing levels, habitat restoration and supplementation, ecological fire management, control of feral animals (both herbivores and predators) and of overabundant kangaroo populations, weed control and management of human disturbance of threatened species were identified as the most frequent recovery actions required for these species.
Community capacity to undertake such actions is variable across the bioregion, and may be particularly limited where declining commodity values have reduced the profitability of dominant farming practices and alternatives have yet to be found. Improved stewardship schemes and further public investment would provide opportunities to increase the actions undertaken and strengthen the viability of some farming businesses. Increased access to information, technical training and key resources (e.g. seed supply for revegetation) would greatly add value to these efforts.
Integrated NRM
Natural resource management in the Victorian Midlands is primarily coordinated through the strategies and associated plans of Regional Catchment Management Authorities (Wimmera, Corangamite, North-Central and Goulburn-Broken). The Draft regional Native Vegetation Plans for these catchment management areas provide a systematic evaluation of conservation status and prioritisation of retention and enhancement of native vegetation based on Ecological Vegetation Classes within the Victorian bioregional framework, while the Draft Victorian Pest Management framework emphasises the importance of pest management for biodiversity conservation. The primarily private land focus of the catchment authorities/boards is complemented by planning processes for public land use and management, particularly for forests and parks/reserves.
The Living Systems Project helps farm families and agribusiness benefit from the contribution native biodiversity to ecological sustainability of farm business and lifestyle. Land for Wildlife promotes voluntary habitat management for biodiversity on private land, conservation assessments and management advice.
A model Environmental Management System including biodiversity components has been developed for Victorian Agriculture with work being undertaken to integrate biodiversity considerations into EMS for grains, grazing and viticulture. A range of incentive activities are relevant to biodiversity. Fencing incentive schemes are generally well targeted for biodiversity protection outcomes. Rate rebate schemes have potential but are currently limited in scope, due to the relatively low level of participation arising from the nature of the rebate offered and/or the number of local government authorities offering rebate schemes. Weed control initiatives generally require an improved focus on biodiversity. There is an opportunity for greatly improved focus of incentives for biodiversity through the wider adoption of a publicly funded native vegetation stewardship model (BushTender) which has been successful trialed in part of the bioregion. It offers strongly targeted through quantitative measurement of biodiversity benefits, combines flexibility for landholder participation with a market-based bidding mechanism, and delivers specific medium-term management agreements.
Other opportunities for improved NRM planning include incorporation of biodiversity conservation objectives into Local Planning Schemes, wider use of overlays and local policies to highlight and protect significant biodiversity values, and full implementation of local government roadside conservation plans that assess conservation significance of roadsides with the intent of protection from inappropriate management practices. The upgrading of investment strategies and tools for NRM (e.g. NAP foundation year projects to improve key resources datasets and to revise regional Catchment Management Strategies) are opportunities to improve the cost-effectiveness of NRM.
The principle constraints for NRM are the biophysical limitations of the heavily depleted vegetation on the lower and more fertile parts of the landscape which limit options for restoration, coupled with the long-term effects and disturbance caused by excessive past logging in many of the areas of native forest remaining on major blocks of public land. These constraints mean that solutions will need to focus on recovery and supplementation of existing habitats, directly coordinated with efforts to recover major ecosystem functions and habitat linkages through the bioregion.
Map: IBRA map showing frequency of recovery actions (species).
Map: IBRA map showing existing projects part of NRM.
Click here to link to a table of contribution of integrated Natural Resource Management to the protection of biodiversity in each subregion: existing measures and effectiveness.
Click here to link to a table of contribution of integrated Natural Resource Management to the protection of biodiversity in each subregion: feasible opportunities and comments.
Further Information & Gaps
Data gaps and research priorities
A general lack of ecological and life history data, particularly for lower profile species, combined with a lack of knowledge of specific local conditions and trends which limits the prioritisation of specific risks and the identification of appropriate types and levels of management intervention.
References
Environment Australia 2000. Revision of the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation of Australia (IBRA) and the Development of Version 5.1. - Summary Report. Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra.
Fitzsimons, J. (1999) Reservation Status of Broad Vegetation Types in Victorian IBRA Regions. Report for the Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria.
Lowe, K.W., Preece, K., and Amos, N. (2000) Victoria's biodiversity reporting system: a bioregional approach to refining priorities and partnerships for biodiversity conservation, in "The Second Southern Hemisphere Ornithological Conference, Griffith University, Brisbane, Conference Programme and Book of Abstracts". Birds Australia Report Series Number 9. Birds Australia: Melbourne.
A complete list of references is available by clicking here.
Further information
View the Landscape Health in Australia report.
View the Terrestrial Biodiversity Assessment 2002 report.
Download the Terrestrial Biodiversity Assessment 2002 Database - Biodiversity Audit Data Entry System (BADES), and specifications
Click here to link to a table of some major data gaps in each subregion in terms of protecting biodiversity.
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