Biodiversity Assessment - Victorian Volcanic Plain
Victorian Volcanic Plain
Introduction
Victorian Volcanic Plain is an extensive basaltic plain with numerous volcanic cones and eruption points. Vegetation formerly consisted of damp sclerophyll forests, woodlands and grasslands, now mostly long cleared. The Victorian Volcanic Plain has two subregions (Victorian Volcanic Plain in Victoria [VVP1] and Mount Gambier in South Australia [VVP2]).
VVP 1 - Victorian Volcanic Plain province dominated by Cainozoic volcanic deposits. These formed an extensive flat to undulating basaltic plain with stony rises, old lava flows, numerous volcanic cones and old eruption points and is dotted with shallow lakes both saline/brackish and freshwater.
The soils are variable. Red texture contrast soils (Kurosols and Ferosols) on the higher fertile plain and scoraceous material originally supported Plains Grassy Woodland and Plains Grassland ecosystems. Calcareous sodic texture contrast soils grading to yellow acidic earths (Calcarosols, Sodosols and Dermosols) on the intermediate plain, and grey cracking clays (Vertosols) on the low plains, supported Stony Knoll Shrubland, Plains Grassy Woodland and Plains Grassy Wetland ecosystems. On the stony rises (volcanic outcropping) the stony earths (Dermosols) supported Stony Rises Herb-rich Woodland, Basalt Shrubby Woodland and Herb-rich Foothill Forest ecosystems. Very little native vegetation remains in this area, most having been cleared for agriculture, both historically through pastoral development and more recently through cropping.
VVP2 - Mount Gambier province is a gently sloping ash plain with steep ash cones rising abruptly. The craters of some of these cones contain lakes (including the well-known landmark Blue Lake). Most native vegetation has been replaced with pine plantation, pastures and crops. Dairy and beef cattle are grazed and vegetables cultivated on smallholdings. Rural land merges with the urban fringe of Mount Gambier (Laut et al. 1977). Very little native vegetation remains in this area, most having been cleared for agriculture. Native species recorded in this area include Eucalyptus ovata, Acacia melanoxylon and A. mearnsii (D'arcy et al. 1984).
Major vegetation types were probably Gahnia trifida and G. filum sedgelands, Banksia marginata low woodland and Leptospermum lanigerum tall closed shrubland on lower lying areas; Melaleuca lanceolata plus Allocasuarina verticillata low woodland on terra rossa soils and minor occurrences of Themeda triandra tussock grassland, Eucalyptus obliqua open forest and E. ovata woodland.
Summary of overall condition and trend
The overall condition and trend in the bioregion is degraded and declining (recovery is unlikely in medium term). The bioregion is now largely private land used almost entirely for agriculture. Almost all the native ecosystems are severely depleted. The relictual nature of the remnant vegetation presents many challenges for the management of the remaining biodiversity. The associated threatening processes are grazing, feral animals, weed invasion, pollution of the wetlands, and fire management of isolated remnants.
Continental landscape stress classes range from 1 to 2 as assessed by the Landscape Health report (1 is most stressed, 6 is least stressed). The main contributors to this stress assessment are the extensive clearing and associated fragmentation of the vegetation.
Summary of conservation priorities
The extensive depletion and fragmentation of the bioregion's ecosystems means that remnants are nearly all highly significant for conservation. Given the large proportion of private land in the Victorian Volcanic Plain and the scattered small conservation reserves, biodiversity conservation will rely heavily on the owners and managers of private land and the network of road and rail reserves and other public land. The emphasis will be on working with landowners and managers to identify and protect these remnants and the threatened species, communities and critical habitats of the region through a range of incentive and support schemes.
Natural values
The Victorian Volcanic Plains bioregion is dotted with karst features including sinkholes, volcanic cones and stony rises, old lava flows, old eruption points and is dotted with shallow lakes both saline/brackish and freshwater. The limestone sinkholes act as a refugia for aquatic plants including Blechnum chambersii (lance water fern) and Pteris tremula (tender brake).
Bioregional endemics include a range of herbaceous plants Poa sallacustris (Salt-lake Tussock-grass), Geranium sp. 1 (Large-flower Cranesbill), and an extensive list of orchids such as Diuris sp aff lanceolata (Early Golden Moths), Pterostylis sp aff bicolor (Woorndoo greenhood), Diuris fragrantissima (Diuris Sunshine), Prasophyllum fosteri (Shelford Leek-orchid), Pterostylis sp aff biseta (Lara Greenhood), Caladenia sp aff fragrantissima (Inverleigh spider-orchid), Pterostylis sp aff cycnocephala (Cygnet Greenhood), Pterostylis sp aff mutica (Basalt Midget Greenhood), Diuris sp. aff. lanceolata (Small Golden Moths), Thelymitra sp. aff. pauciflora (Laverton) (Short Sun-orchid), Caladenia pumila (Dwarf Spider-orchid), Pterostylis basaltica (Basalt Greenhood), Thelymitra gregaria (Basalt Sun-orchid).
Click here to link to a table of natural values within each subregion
Wetlands
Twenty-eight wetlands of national importance are listed, including inland salt marshes, permanent and intermittent freshwater and saline/brackish lakes, permanent freshwater ponds and marshes and inland, subterranean karst wetlands. These wetlands act as significant refuges supporting populations of endemic, rare or threatened species, and species-rich ecosystems. Their condition is poor (improvement requires significant management intervention) while the trend is declining. Threatening processes include pollution (run off of fertilisers and herbicides from adjacent agricultural land), grazing pressure, environmental weeds, and changes to hydrology.
One thousand and fifty four wetlands of regional significance have been identified, including inland salt marshes, permanent and intermittent freshwater and saline/brackish lakes, permanent freshwater ponds and marshes and Inland, subterranean karst wetlands. They act as refuges supporting populations of endemic, rare or threatened species, and species-rich ecosystems. Their condition is fair (improvement requires significant management intervention) while trend is declining. Threatening processes are the same as for the wetlands of national importance.
The Western District Lakes are identified as a Ramsar site.
Nationally important wetlands
Map: IBRA map showing DIWA locations, towns, subregions, major roads and reserves and most common threatening processes.
Click here to link to a table of Australia's Important Wetlands (Directory of Important Wetlands of Australia): their type, condition, trend and threatening processes within each subregion.
Regionally important wetlands
Click here to link to a table of provisional identification of wetlands of regional significance: their type and special values within each subregion. The reliability of the overall subregional assessment is indicated.
Click here to link to a table of provisional identification of wetlands of regional significance: their condition, trend and threatening processes within each subregion.
Riparian Zones
The main river systems include the Maribyrnong, Werribee, Moorabool, Barwon, Corangamite, Hopkins, Glenelg and Merri Rivers, and Mount Emu and Leigh Creeks. The riparian zones are generally degraded (recovery unlikely in medium term), and declining under trampling and grazing pressure from cattle and feral herbivores, environmental weeds, increasing fragmentation and loss of remnants, changed fire regimes, firewood collection and changed hydrology - salinity and others.
Map: Riparian threatening processes.
Click here to link to a table of riparian zones: their average condition, trend and threatening processes for each subregion. The reliability of this overall assessment is indicated.
Ecosystems at risk
In the Victorian Volcanic Plains subregion 1 there are thirty-five endangered and ten vulnerable regional ecosystems (i.e. Ecological Vegetation Classes) at risk and declining with ten ecosystems now extinct. Of the 75 regional ecosystems in the subregion- 47% are endangered and 19% vulnerable and 15% extinct. The most common vegetation types that are under threat are eucalyptus woodlands with a grassy understorey and eucalyptus woodlands with a shrubby understorey that originally dominated the bioregion.
In the Victorian Volcanic Plains subregion 2 there are two endangered and one vulnerable ecosystems at risk and which are declining.
The main threatening processes impacting on these ecosystems are: increasing fragmentation and loss of remnants through clearing for agricultural land, the introduction of exotic weeks, grazing pressure, introduction of feral animals, changing of fire regimes, changed hydrology such both salinity and drainage of wetlands for agricultural purposes, a build up of herbicides and fertilisers from adjacent agricultural land.
Map: IBRA map showing frequency of threatening processes for ecosystems.
Click here to link to a table of provisional list of threatened ecosystems in Australia: their broad vegetation type (National Vegetation Information System - Major Vegetation Subgroup), recommended status, current legislative protection as a threatened ecosystem, trend and bioregional distribution. These ecosystems are arranged in the bioregion of their principal occurrence. The reliability of the recommended status is indicated.
Click here to link to a table of provisional list of threatened ecosystems in each subregion: their threatening processes.
Click here to link to a table of provisional list of threatened ecosystems in each subregion: their recommended recovery actions
Species at risk
187 taxa listed as threatened have been identified in the bioregion. Twelve taxa are listed as extinct, 17 as critically endangered, 78 as endangered 92 as vulnerable, in at least one jurisdiction. 129 other taxa of conservation concern have been identified.
In the Victorian Volcanic Plains, trends of the taxa in the bioregion are 6% extinct, 4% rapidly declining, 8% declining, 3% improving and the trend for the remaining 70% is unknown. In the Mount Gambier subregion the trends are: Static 22%, declining 44%, and unknown 33%.
Threatening processes which impact on these species include: broad scale vegetation clearing - Loss of riparian vegetation and suitable habitat; changed fire regimes; changed hydrology - salinity and other - alteration of hydrology, particularly through siltation of stream from accelerated catchment erosion due agriculture and forestry practices, control of flooding, drainage of many wetlands and watercourses in the region loss of dry weather stream flow and suppression of minor flooding; exotic weeds - Encroachment of pine trees and other weed species into native vegetation may crowd out native species; feral animals - Predation by foxes and cats; Gambusia, Brown trout and Redfin, Carp destroy aquatic vegetation which is important for shelter and spawning sites; grazing pressure - cattle damage to riparian vegetation which increases water turbidity; increasing fragmentation and loss of remnants - Isolated populations are genetically insecure and the fragmented nature of remaining habitat may increase the vulnerability of the populations to predators such as Wedge-tailed Eagles and Peregrine Falcons; other - egg predation by Brush-tail Possums, Kookaburras, Currawongs or Crows; and pollution - agricultural chemicals and waste water treatments.
Table: Number of threatened taxa, and others of conservation concern occurring in the bioregion
| Commonwealth | Victoria | South Australia | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Extinct | Endangered | Vulnerable | Extinct | Critically Endangered | Endangered | Vulnerable | Data deficient or Insufficiently known |
Lower risk - Near Threatened |
Rare | Endangered | Vulnerable | |
| Amphibians | 1 | 1 | ||||||||||
| Birds | 5 | 7 | 9 | 25 | 23 | 6 | 9 | 3 | ||||
| Fish | 1 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 2 | ||||
| Invertebrates | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | ||||||||
| Mammals | 3 | 5 | 5 | 8 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 6 | 1 | ||
| Plant | 1 | 17 | 27 | 4 | 45 | 53 | 40 | 56 | 3 | |||
| Reptiles | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | ||||||
| Total | 4 | 30 | 45 | 12 | 17 | 77 | 87 | 53 | 19 | 57 | 1 | 8 |
Map: IBRA map showing frequency of threatening processes for species.
Click here to link to a table of species at risk in each subregion: their status, trend and subregional distribution. The reliability of the assessment of trend is indicated and whether recovery plans have been prepared.
Click here to link to a table of species at risk in each subregion: their threatening processes.
Click here to link to a table of species at risk in each subregion: their status recommended recovery actions.
Eucalypts and Acacias
None identified in this bioregion
Birds
Very little native vegetation is left on the Victorian Volcanic Plains, most having been cleared long ago. Rainfall was below average during both Atlas periods. Nevertheless, a substantial number of birds were seen by the busy birdwatchers of Melbourne. The bioregion supports a few limited range taxa, and eight threatened taxa, but it is of major importance for only the Critically Endangered Orange-bellied Parrot, which over-winters on the coastal saltmarsh. Given the continental stress level of the bioregion, there an unsurprisingly high load of introduced birds, which constitute over 12% of all records. Reporting rates of guilds containing some ground-feeding insectivores, forest birds and grassland birds declined between the two Atlas periods.
Status: Much altered but still highly diverse mix of grassland and temperate woodland birds, though little endemicity; high exotic bird loading.
Rare and threatened: Orange-bellied Parrot on saltmarsh in winter.
Increasers: Mallard, Musk Lorikeet, Pied Currawong.
Indicators: Australasian Bittern, Banded Lapwing, Gang-Gang Cockatoo, Brown Treecreeper, Rufous Bristlebird, Tawny-crowned Honeyeater, Scarlet Robin, Flame Robin, Jacky Winter, Spotted Quail-thrush, Varied Sittella, Crested Shrike-tit, Restless Flycatcher, Diamond Firetail .
Trend: Declines in grassland and forest birds and ground-feeding insectivores.
Scenario: Continued declines in fragmented habitats and possibly grassland birds and increase in some exotic and more adaptable native species.
Actions: Maximise or increase the size of and integrity of grassland and woodland fragments. Provide connectivity between seasonally variable resources. Protect or rehabilitate catchments of major wetlands retaining values for freshwater birds.
Click hereto download a summary report including the physical characteristics of the bioregion, a species list, and summary statistics [Excel file]. The file may open on your screen. To save it to your system 'Save as' under the File menu.
Mammals
Number of species and status
There are 56 mammal species within this bioregion. (The maximum number of species recorded in a bioregion is 86 and the minimum is 25).
Click here to link to a table of number of species in each status class for this bioregion.
Click here to link to a list of mammal species and their status for this bioregion.
Critical weight range
The critical weight range (35 - 5500 g) of mammals is the size range of Australian mammals that have been most affected by environmental changes following European settlement. In this bioregion, the proportion of mammal fauna within the critical weight range is .518. (The maximum proportion of fauna within the critical weight range recorded in a bioregion is 0.632 and the minimum is 0.222).
Faunal Attrition Index
Faunal attrition is a measure of contraction or loss of species richness with a region. A high index value means many species have declined or are extinct in the bioregion. The index can be used to compare the status of mammal fauna to regional attributes such as changes since European settlement and average annual rainfall. The Faunal Attrition Index for mammals in this bioregion is .38. (The maximum faunal attrition index value recorded in a bioregion is 0.66 and the minimum is 0).
Click here to link to a table of Faunal Attrition Index for groups of mammals shows the contributions of each group to overall patterns of faunal decline.
Faunal Contraction Index
A range contraction index is a measure of the extent to which the range inhabited by a particular species has contracted. A high index value means that many of the species comprising the region's original mammal fauna have contracted from a high proportion of the regions they originally occurred in. The faunal contraction index for the mammal fauna in this bioregion is .28. (The maximum faunal contraction index value recorded in a bioregion is 0.51 and the minimum is 0.07).
Faunal Endemism Index
Endemic species are those restricted to certain regions. Regions containing endemic species are considered to have high biodiversity conservation values because opportunities to conserve those species do not exist elsewhere. A high index value means that the species comprising the original mammal fauna typically occurred in few bioregions. The faunal endemism index value for the mammal fauna in this bioregion is .69. (The maximum faunal endemism index value recorded in a bioregion is 0.79 and the minimum is 0.52).
New Endemism Index
Extant (still surviving) species that have undergone major range contractions can be considered 'new endemics'. Bioregions that contain new endemic species are often important refugia for threatened species. The new endemism index for the mammal fauna in this bioregion is .5. (The maximum new endemism index value recorded in a bioregion is 0.93 and the minimum is 0.5).
Click here to link to a list translocated species that has/have been successfully translocated into this bioregion.
Exotic Mammals
The number of introduced exotic mammal species that occur within this bioregion is 9. (The maximum number of introduced exotic mammal species in a bioregion is 16 and the minimum is 5).
Click here to link to a list of introduced exotic mammal species for this bioregion.
Extinct mammal species
The number of extinct mammal species that previously occurred within this bioregion is 11. (The maximum number of extinct mammal species in a bioregion is 29 and the minimum is 0).
Click here to link to a list of extinct mammal species for this bioregion.
Management responses
Reserve consolidation
The total area in parks and conservation reserves represents 1.2% of the bioregion. At least twenty-five percent of regional ecosystems are included in parks and reserves. (Note that the identification of regional ecosystem reservation for this bioregion was not complete at the time of analysis).
Major reserves include: Mount Eccles National Park, Organ Pipes National Park, and Mount Napier State Park that are significant for geological and geomorphological features and Aboriginal significance; Cobra Killuc Wildlife Reserve, Derrimut Grassland, Craigieburn Grassland Reserve and Inverleigh Flora Reserve which are significant for the Western (Basalt) Plains Community; Lake Corangamite Reserve is a large naturally saline lake, which has international significance for waterbirds; and Tower Hill Wildlife Reserve, which is significant for threatened species and geological formations.
Priority for increased protection has been assessed (based on Fitzsimons (1999)) at the level of Broad Vegetation Types within IBRA Version 4 bioregional boundaries. The following have been listed as a high priority: Plains Grassy Woodland Complexes, Grassland Complexes, Herb-rich Woodland Complexes and Lowland Forest Complexes. Land acquisition through the National Reserve System Program has increased the reservation level of Grassland and Plains Grassy Woodland in the bioregion. A comprehensive investigation of all known unreserved high priority vegetation remnants has been carried out and identifies priorities for further protection and reserve acquisition, where appropriate. The West Victoria Regional Forest Agreement addressed the protection of some priority ecosystems, such as Lowland Forest, through Special Protection Zones. Opportunities for increasing reservation are limited by the extreme depletion of some ecosystems and private land ownership.
Click here to link to a table of comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness (CAR) of the National Reserve System in terms of ecosystems and area sampled and a ranking of reserve management. The bioregional priority for consolidating the National Reserve System is based on this CAR analysis and threat.
Table: Bioregional and subregional priorities and ecosystem priorities to consolidate the National Reserve System and associated ecosystem constraints.
There is no data available for this table within the bioregion.
Off-park conservation for species and ecosystem recovery
Given the large proportion of private land in the Victorian Volcanic Plain and the relictual nature of remnant vegetation in the landscape, biodiversity conservation will rely heavily on off reserve management on private land and the network of road and rail reserves and other public land.
The following taxa have been identified as the highest priority for planning and management activity off-reserve in subregional assessment (VVP1) of threatened species conservation activity (Lowe et al. 2000). Australasian Bittern (Botaurus poiciloptilus), Corangamite Water Skink (Eulamprus tympanum ssp. (Corangamite)), Eastern Barred Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), Gull-billed Tern (Sterna nilotica), Painted Snipe (Rostratula benghalensis), Plains-wanderer (Pedionomus torquatus), Southern Lined Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis lineata pinguicolla), Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar), Yarra Pygmy Perch (Edelia obscura) for fauna, and, for vascular plants Amphibromus pithogastrus (Plump Swamp Wallaby-grass), Carex tasmanica (Curly Sedge), Comesperma polygaloides (Small Milkwort), Craspedia sp. aff. variabilis (Derrinallum) (Derrinallum Billy-buttons), Cullen tenax (Tough Scurf-pea), Pimelea spinescens ssp. spinescens (Spiny Rice-flower), Poa sallacustris (Salt-lake Tussock-grass), Rutidosis leptorhynchoides (Button Wrinklewort), Senecio macrocarpus (Large-fruit Fireweed), including a number of orchids such as Diuris behrii (Golden Cowslips), Diuris fragrantissima (White Diuris), Diuris sp. aff. lanceolata (Laverton) (Small Golden Moths), Prasophyllum diversiflorum (Gorae Leek-orchid), Prasophyllum suaveolens (Fragrant Leek-orchid), Pterostylis basaltica (Basalt Greenhood). The Western (Basalt) Plains Community is a Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act listed community of particular importance in the bioregion.
Fencing and changes to grazing levels, control of feral animals (predators and rabbits) weed control, control of water contaminants, ecological burning, reinstatement of hydrology - environmental flows, habitat supplementation, and control and exclusion of human disturbance were identified as the commonest recovery management actions required for these species. Community capacity to undertake such actions is variable across the bioregion, and may be particularly limited where declining commodity values have reduced the profitability of dominant farming practices and alternatives have yet to be found. Improved stewardship schemes and further public investment would provide opportunities to increase the actions undertaken and strengthen the viability of some farming businesses. Increased access to information, technical training and key resources (e.g. seed supply for revegetation) would greatly add value to these efforts.
Integrated NRM
Natural resource management in the Victorian Volcanic Plains (VVP1) is primarily coordinated through the strategies and associated plans of Regional Catchment Management Authorities (Glenelg-Hopkins and Corangamite) or the Port Phillip Catchment and Land Protection Boards. The Draft Native Vegetation Plans for these catchments management areas provide a systematic evaluation of conservation status and prioritisation of retention and enhancement of native vegetation based on Ecological Vegetation Classes within the Victorian bioregional framework, while the Draft Victorian Pest Management framework emphasises the importance of pest management for Biodiversity conservation. The primarily private land focus of the catchment authorities/boards is complemented by planning processes for public land use and management, particularly for forests and parks/reserves. The Living Systems Project helps farm families and agribusiness recognise and realise the potential benefits from native biodiversity's contribution to the ecological sustainability of farm business and lifestyle. Land for Wildlife promotes voluntary habitat management for biodiversity on private land, conservation assessments and management advice.
A model Environmental Management System including biodiversity components has been developed for Victorian Agriculture with work being undertaken to integrate biodiversity considerations into EMS for grains, grazing and viticulture.
A range of incentive activities are relevant to biodiversity. Fencing incentive schemes are generally well targeted for biodiversity protection outcomes. Rate rebate schemes have potential but are currently limited in scope, due to the relatively low level of participation arising from the nature of the rebate offered and/or the number of local government authorities offering rebate schemes. Weed control initiatives generally require an improved focus on biodiversity. There is an opportunity for greatly improved focus of incentives for biodiversity through the wider adoption of a publicly-funded native vegetation stewardship model (BushTender) which is strongly targeted through quantitative measurement of biodiversity benefits, combines flexibility for landholder participation with a market-based bidding mechanism, and delivers specific medium-term management agreements.
Other opportunities for improved NRM planning include incorporation of biodiversity conservation objectives into Local Planning Schemes, wider use of overlays and local policies to highlight and protect significant biodiversity values, and full implementation of local government roadside conservation plans that assess conservation significance of roadsides with the intent of protection from inappropriate management practices. The upgrading of investment strategies and tools for NRM (e.g. NAP foundation year projects to improve key resources datasets and to revise regional Catchment Management Strategies) are opportunities to improve the cost-effectiveness of NRM.
The principle constraints for NRM are: the biophysical constraints which arise from the almost complete extent of past clearing and the associated changes in soil and hydrology characteristics; and the economic constraints which arise from having the great majority of land in private ownership and under agricultural landuse. These constraints mean that solutions will need to focus on recovery and supplementation of existing habitats, directly coordinated with efforts to recover major ecosystem functions (e.g. groundwater and surface water quantity and quality), and in an integrated manner which supports viable farm businesses.
Map: IBRA map showing frequency of recovery actions (species).
Map: IBRA map showing frequency of recovery actions (ecosystems).
Map: IBRA map showing existing projects part of NRM.
Click here to link to a table of contribution of integrated Natural Resource Management to the protection of biodiversity in each subregion: existing measures and effectiveness.
Click here to link to a table of contribution of integrated Natural Resource Management to the protection of biodiversity in each subregion: feasible opportunities and comments.
Further Information & Gaps
Data gaps and research priorities
VVP 1 - Victorian Volcanic Plain - A general lack of ecological and life history data, particularly for lower profile species, combined with a lack of knowledge of specific local conditions and trends which limits the prioritisation of specific risks and the identification of appropriate types and levels of management intervention.
VVP2 - Mount Gambier - Floristic data: Species specific data re- threats; Survey information - systematic fauna survey: Specific targeted survey work is required; Other: Further wetland inventory survey work required; and Biological Research on fire, weed, grazing and genetics.
References
Environment Australia 2000. Revision of the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation of Australia (IBRA) and the Development of Version 5.1. - Summary Report. Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra.
Fitzsimons, J. (1999) Reservation Status of Broad Vegetation Types in Victorian IBRA Regions. Report for the Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria.
Lowe, K.W., Preece, K., and Amos, N. (2000) Victoria's biodiversity reporting system: a bioregional approach to refining priorities and partnerships for biodiversity conservation, in "The Second Southern Hemisphere Ornithological Conference, Griffith University, Brisbane, Conference Programme and Book of Abstracts". Birds Australia Report Series Number 9. Birds Australia: Melbourne.
A complete list of references is available by clicking here.
Further information
View the Landscape Health in Australia report.
View the Terrestrial Biodiversity Assessment 2002 report.
Download the Terrestrial Biodiversity Assessment 2002 Database - Biodiversity Audit Data Entry System (BADES), and specifications
Click here to link to a table of some major data gaps in each subregion in terms of protecting biodiversity.
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